The Importance of Caching in WordPress

When it comes to optimizing your website, the role of caching in WordPress can never be underestimated. Quite a lot has been talked about caching on the internet in general. Yet, it still remains a relatively lesser utilized feature among a large section of the WordPress user base.What exactly is caching all about? We know that it can speed up our websites, but is there more to it? How should we employ caching to boost the performance of our WordPress websites? Are there any specific considerations to bear in mind?This article will answer all of the above questions related to caching in WordPress:The importance of caching in WordPressWhat is caching?To begin with, let us take a moment to familiarize ourselves with the process of caching in general.In simple terms, caching refers to the process of creating static versions of your content, and serving that to visitors. Static pages are generally rendered quickly in browsers. This leads to faster performance of your website.In WordPress , rendering or fetching a page (or post or custom post type) requires back and forth queries to be sent to and from the database. Now, more often than not, you will create a post or a page and then you wont be updating it everyday. Caching creates static copies of your post or page, and serves that to visitors. This way, the back and forth queries to and from the database can be avoided, thereby reducing the server load.The benefits of cachingThere are various benefits of caching in WordPress, such as: First up, it enhances the speed and performance of your website. Static cached files load faster than dynamic database queries, and this leads to faster and better performance of your website. Caching can also help reduce the load on your hosting server. This can save server memory and I/O operations. As a result, caching is fast becoming a vital feature, especially for folks with limited hosting plans. Faster websites do not just load fast, but also get a favorable rank with search e ngines. This, obviously, depends heavily on other metrics as well, such as the quality of your content and your SEO settings. But all other things being constant, a website that loads faster will getter a better pagerank than a slower one. Google has confirmed that it takes pagespeed in consideration. Cached websites provide for a better user experience overall. A faster site helps users browse better. Furthermore, cached site means that the users bandwidth is also saved (albeit by a nominal margin), since static cached pages are less in terms of filesize as compared to dynamic requests. To make this happen, your caching solution must make use of combined and minified JavaScript and CSS, apart from just basic page caching. Impressed already? But how do you enable caching in WordPress? The easiest way to do so is by means of plugins. There are several free and premium WordPress plugins out there that help you to enable caching on your website. We shall take a look at some of the key ones here:Popular WordPress caching pluginsWP Super Cache WP Super Cache Author(s): AutomatticCurrent Version: 1.7.0Last Updated: August 16, 2019wp-super-cache.1.7.0.zip 86%Ratings 30,859,198Downloads WP 3.1+Requires WP Super Cache is a free WordPress plugin with over a million active installations. It generates static HTML files for your WordPress site. This way, your website functions faster than a non-cached site.WP Super Cache is a simple plugin, but it offers good scope for customization as well. You can also make it work in sync with your CDN service. WP Super Cache is a safe bet if you are new to caching in WordPress and are looking for a plugin that is under steady development,W3 Total Cache W3 Total Cache Author(s): Frederick TownesCurrent Version: 0.10.1Last Updated: September 11, 2019w3-total-cache.0.10.1.zip 86%Ratings 17,209,595Downloads WP 3.2+Requires W3 Total Cache is another extremely popular caching plugin for WordPress users, with over a million ac tive sites. Unlike other cache plugins, W3 Total Cache does more than just generation of static pages. It can also help you minify and compress your scripts, and leverage various other tools to further speed up your site.Demo videoAs expected, W3 Total Cache is a rather complicated plugin with a slightly steeper learning curve. If you are relatively newer to WordPress caching plugins, this one might be overkill for you.WP Fastest Cache WP Fastest Cache Author(s): Emre VonaCurrent Version: 0.8.9.8Last Updated: September 22, 2019wp-fastest-cache.0.8.9.8.zip 96%Ratings 12,735,516Downloads WP 3.3+Requires WP Fastest Cache generates static HTML pages of your content to speed up page load times. In addition to WordPress caching, it also offers various performance optimization options, such as the ability to minify HTML and CSS and speed up JS scripts.WP Fastest Cache also supports GZip compression that can be used to reduce the size of files sent from your server. This plugin is f ree, but is backed by a premium version that comes with added features, such as the ability to integrate with CDN services.Cache Enabler Cache Enabler WordPress Cache Author(s): KeyCDNCurrent Version: 1.3.4Last Updated: May 14, 2019cache-enabler.zip 86%Ratings 520,324Downloads WP 4.6+Requires Cache Enabler is a relatively newer WordPress plugin. It offers an extremely simple and easy to use interface. In other words, this plugin  does what it is meant to do cache your content and serve static cached pages to visitors.Cache Enabler is probably meant for you if you need a simple cache solution. This plugin does not involve heavy configuration or settings. It simply works out of the box. On the other hand, if you are used to something that offers granular control over every aspect of caching, Cache Enabler might seem rather unimpressive to you.Note that since Cache Enabler is a new plugin, it is way less popular than the other entries on this list (currently, it has over 60 00 active installs).Comet Cache Comet Cache Author(s): WP SharksCurrent Version: 170220Last Updated: May 20, 2019comet-cache.170220.zip 90%Ratings 395,422Downloads WP 4.2+Requires Comet Cache offers caching features such as generation of static HTML pages, as well as optimization features like GZip compression. It supports both browser and server-side caching. Currently, Comet Cache has over 30,000 active installs.Comet Cache also has a Pro version, that lets you do stuff such as integrate with CDN services, run custom PHP code, enforce canonical URLs, etc. The Comet Cache interface is slightly confusing though, and not as clean as that of the other plugins on this list. You might need some time before you get used to it.WP RocketWP Rocket is a premium solution, but it has been proven to deliver perhaps the best results out of all WordPress caching tools on the market. (This is probably the charge money.)WP Rocket is easy to set up, and also offers more individual features c ompared to the other plugins on this list. It is also the caching solution that we use on this very blog.ConclusionCaching in WordPress is very much like every other optimization and performance related tweak. It needs to be done together with other measures to truly work. If you really want to speed up your site, you should also go through these quick wins for site speed.Having a good cache solution always helps. If your site fails to load fast, you will lose business and visitors. As such, you should consider setting up a cache plugin on your site at the earliest.Which WordPress cache plugin do you use and why? Share your views in the comments below!Free guide5 Essential Tips to Speed Up Your WordPress SiteReduce your loading time by even 50-80% just by following simple tips.

The Florida Everglades a Wetlands Ecosystem Essays

The Florida Everglades a Wetlands Ecosystem Essays The Florida Everglades a Wetlands Ecosystem Paper The Florida Everglades a Wetlands Ecosystem Paper All Of the wildlife in the Everglades is totally dependent on the cycling Of water. One example of this dependence is the feeding relationship between the snail kite (an endangered bird species), and the apple snail (a freshwater mollusk the size of a golf ball) (Taller). The apple snails reproduce during the rainy season. When water levels are at their highest, they lay thousands of tiny pink eggs on the stalks of marsh grasses. As the water recedes, the snail kites fly all over the Everglades looking for them. Once they find them, they swoop down and use their specialized beaks to pluck the tender snails from heir shells. The water cycle and the lives of apple snails and snail kites are intertwined. Snail kites depend on the successful reproduction of apple snails, which is, in turn, affected by the amount of rainfall. Only recently have scientists been able to observe how close this relationship is. When humans drained large areas of the Everglades and converted them to agricultural lands, the population of apple snails decreased sharply. This had a dramatic effect on the snail kite population. In 2003, only 1 600 snail kites remained in Florida, the birds only U. S. Habitat (Smith). The relationship among humans, nail kites, and apple snails illustrates the delicate balance of nature in an ecosystem. When humans alter the water cycle, they directly affect the food chain. Alligators are animals that often come to mind when people think of the Everglades. The American alligator, once a highly endangered reptile, plays a critical role in the Everglades ecosystem, especially during the dry season (Alligator Holes). As winter approaches, water levels begin to drop. Alligators, which need an ample supply of water to survive, sense the changing of the season and begin to prepare for the dry months ahead. Using their powerful snouts, tails, and legs, they make comfortable dens for themselves by slashing small plants, and muck out of the marsh. As it thrashes its body from side to side, it creates a small hole filled with water. Plant matter and mud piled up around the edges of the hole create dry ground on which other plants eventually grow. After many years, grass, trees, and other plants surround these gator holes like fences. Gator holes are important to other species as well. As the water becomes scarce during the dry season, many animals search for food and remaining pockets of water. The gator holes attract crayfish, frogs, turtles, fish, and other aquatic species, all seeking refuge in the deeper waters of the gator holes. Muskrats, otters, deer, and raccoons, as well as a wide variety of beautiful birds, such as ibises, egrets, and herons, visit these sanctuaries to feed on the small animals that can be found there. Because alligators and the watery hollows they make play such an important role in the Everglades ecosystem, they are considered to be a keystone species since many other species depend upon them for their survival. This has earned them the nickname keepers of the glades. Due to constantly changing water levels, ecosystems like the Everglades can be very unpredictable places. Since the 1 8005, people have tried to control the Everglades to prevent flooding (Blake). Large canals were built to send the water into the ocean and away from the Everglades. The land along the canals dried up and became more useful to people. Before so much Of the Everglades was drained, most of its water came from Lake Cheekbone, which sometimes overflowed along its southern edge. With an annual rainfall of nearly 60 inches (Everglades) and the overflow from the lake, a large area f the Everglades used to be wet for most of the year. But the lake was a source of major flooding to towns, especially during the rainy season. In the 1 sass, other flood control projects were started, including the construction of a dike along Lake Cheekbones southern rim. Because the water no longer overflowed from the lake; farmers and ranchers now had more dry land on which to live and work. More projects followed in the asses and asses. Today, about half of the original Everglades has been drained to create dry land for towns and farms and much of the region is crisscrossed by an elaborate system of canals, dikes, and levees. Blake) Water control efforts have benefited the residents of south Arid, but now nature no longer controls the flow of water into the Everglades; as a result, the natural balance of the ecosystem has been damaged. The draining of the Everglades has harmed many animals that depend on water for reproduction, such as snails, fish, and frogs. Because these creatures are at the bottom of many Everglades food chains, their diminishing numbers have had a rippling effect throughout the entire community. Like the snail kite, other bird species C such as the ibis, heron, and the endangered wood stork CO have suffered. In fact, scientists have estimated that some bird populations have dropped about 90 percent (Birds) over the past fifty years because of the low water levels. Now scientists are encouraging us to realize that a great number of plants and animals must survive to help maintain this delicate environment. Because the canals and dikes have helped to dry up the land, part of the original Everglades has become a rich agricultural area. Yet, productivity within this marsh has had a negative effect on its wildlife. In the asses and asses, bald eagles and pelicans in the Everglades were among the many birds heartened with extinction by the chemical EDT. (Scott) Farmers sprayed EDT on their crops to control insects. They didnt realize that from heavy rains was washing the poisonous chemical into the Everglades. Scientists discovered that EDT caused the shells of birds eggs to thin, resulting in the death of many young birds before hatching. The U. S. Government finally banned the use of EDT in 1972. Agricultural runoff disrupts the Everglades ecosystem in other ways too. Fertilizers, which contain plant nutrients, are washed from the sugarcane plantations a few miles north. These fertilizers cause an excessive growth Of algae. The algae can form large mats called algal blooms, which float on the surface of the water and results in transportation. The effects of transportation can be seen as far south as Florida Bay. As the algae die and decompose, they use up large amounts of oxygen in the water, which causes fish, crabs, shrimp, insects, and other aquatic species to suffocate in the oxygen-depleted water. With the drier conditions created by flood-control, brush fires began to sweep through the Everglades in the 1 sass and asses. These devastating blazes led environmentalists to pressure the government to establish the Everglades National park. (Park Establishment) Today, visitors can experience Florists diverse, rare, and beautiful wildlife in the Everglades National Park. Located in the southwestern portion of the marsh, this is one of the largest national parks in the United States. Each year, millions of tourists come to see the huge array of tropical wildlife, which includes nearly six hundred different types of animals, such as alligators, crocodiles, pelicans, snakes, and a multitude of insect species. The Everglades is the largest freshwater wetlands in the continental United States and one of the worlds great biological treasures. It is home to many species of endangered plants and animals. But it is also an ecosystem in trouble. Over the past century, about half of the original Everglades has been drained, filled, and converted for farmland and other development. Much of the nutrient-filled water that once flowed naturally through the Everglades has been artificially diverted to sugarcane plantations. As a result, the entire ecosystem has suffered. Damaged wetlands cannot provide suitable habitat for the plants and animals that depend on it for survival. In 1 983, the state of Florida, along with several environmental groups, munched the Save Our Everglades campaign to start looking at ways to preserve the troubled wetlands. The project had one clear goal: to make the Everglades look and function more like it did in 1900 than it did in 1983. Throughout the 1 sass, scientists worked on this plan. In 1 994, the Arid state legislature passed the Everglades Forever Act (Longboat), which authorized the Everglades Construction Project the largest effort ever attempted to restore an ecosystem. One of the projects in the Everglades restoration effort is the construction of 40,000 acres of artificial marshes (Diabetes). These marshes will serve as a protective barrier between the sugarcane plantations and the rest of the Everglades ecosystem. The artificial wetlands are essentially huge ponds surrounded by dirt and filled with lots of nutrient-loving plants. Scientists hope that the plants will clean the water by catching and filtering out pesticides, fertilizers, and other farm runoff before it reaches the Everglades. The clean water will then be redirected back into the marsh. Another project is to restore the Kismet River (Restoring a River). Before people began tinkering with the Everglades, the Kismet was a 102-mile meandering river that supplies most of the water to Lake Cheekbone. In 1961, engineers straightened the Kismet River to control flooding around Lake Cheekbone and to make room for farms. Most of the water in the river was then diverted into a 55-mile straight channel, officially named the C-38 canal. Scientists expect that once the river IS returned to its original path, the habitat for more than three hundred fish and wildlife species, including the endangered wood stork and snail kite, will be restored. A total of 24 endangered or threatened plant and animal species live in the Everglades ecosystem (Threatened Endangered Species) and most of these species face extinction due to habitat loss. One large Everglades mammal that faces extinction due to habitat loss is the Florida panther, a type of cougar. Two hundred years ago, cougars roamed freely from Alaska to South America; but today, due to habitat loss, the only cougar population east of the Mississippi River is the Florida panther. Despite widespread efforts to save the panther, fewer than fifty remain in the wild (Florida Panther). This makes it one of the most endangered animals in North America. If habitat loss can be halted, biologists hope that the panther population will increase.

Case Study about the Capital Gains Tax

In the given case, Dave Solomon age 59 is planning to get retired at an age of 60. He has decided to plan out his assets in the best possible way so that he has enough money at the time he gets retired. With an intention to save maximum amount available with him at the time of retirement, he decides to collect $1,000,000. HE decides to rent a city apartment and withdraw the tax free amount that he has saved in the superannuation fund for the retirement purposes. He was living in St Lucia from the past 30 years. He in order to raise the money that he has decided he plans to sell out his home through an auction. He conducts and auction and sells the house for $850,000 which has cost him $70,000, 30 years back. During the auction process, Dave has forfeited $85,000 from one of the customer, who first agreed to buy the house but after he fails to meet out his commitment. In this process Dave has paid $15,000 to the agent who has helped in fetching the right customer for the process. Cons idering all these points, Dave has made profit of $850,000 for the sale transaction. A person is not required to pay any capital gain tax on the profit that the person has earned on the sale of his residence. The exemption that has been given in the Australian tax laws is applicable only on the property in which the person is living or residing into. Thus, a person is required to pay the capital gain tax only on the property that has been earned by the person only on the property that has been held by him as an investment. In the given case, Dave has been living in his house located at ST Lucia which he has sold for $850,000. Being this property is the only in which Dave is living from past 30 years. Thus, in light to the above provision, being a property which has been used by the person is his own residence does not attract capital gain tax. Thus in that case, the capital gain earned by Dace worth $850,000 is not eligible for capital gain tax. As per the Australian tax laws, a person is not eligible to pay any capital gain tax liability arising on the profit that he has earned on sale of personal and collectible assets. In case of personal and collectible assets we have a separate classification which would be used for such taxation and thus the same in no case should be mixed with the provision of normal capital gain tax laws. The collectable and personal asset in this case includes art work such as drawings, paintings, photographs etc., jewellery, antiques, coins etc. In the given case, the painting of pro hart that has been sold by Dave would be covered in the definition of personal and collectible assets and thus the profit worth $110,000 that he has earned on such sale would be covered under the separate category other than capital gain. A person is not eligible to pay any tax liability on the gain that he has earned on sale of personal assets. The personal assets in this case includes car, resident property etc.   In the given case, the assessee sold motor cruiser for $60,000 which he has purchased for $110,000. In light to the above provision, Dave is not likely to bear any capital gin tax from sale of his personal assets. Although, Dave has incurred loss on the above transaction, thus being the gin is not taxable, the loss so incurred by Dave would also not be carried forward or set of from any taxable capital gain. Dave during the year has taken a loan of $70,000. He has utilized the sales proceeds on purchase of shares which he has sold during the year for $80,000. On this sale, Dave is required to pay brokerage and stamp duty worth $750 and $250 respectively. In case of sale of shares, a person if carrying out the same a business, he would be eligible to bear the tax on ordinary income basis; else the income so earned would be taxable as capital gain. Dave in the above case has to bear interest cost worth $5,000 on the loan amount. While calculating the capital gain tax all the expenses that have been incurred in earning the profit on such sale would be allowed as deduction. However, the interest that the individual has paid on the loan amount that he has utilized for purchasing the shares, would not be allowed as deduction being the same does not have any direct link with generation of income. In this case, Dave made a profit of $9,000 on the transaction. The interest amount of $5,000 would not be allowed as deduction. Considering the above points, Dave during the period has earned the following as capital gain: Dave in the last year has a net capital loss of $10,000 that he has earned on sale of shares. The capital loss so incurred by Dave can be carried forward and will be reduced from the gain made in the current year. The amount that has been earned by Dave during the period would be used by him for meeting his retirement needs.   ATO. Gov, Statutory formula method for Car FBT taxation, viewed on 1 st June 2016. ATO. Gov, FBT Tax rate 2016, viewed on 1 st June 2016. ATO. Gov, Market Interest Rate 2016, viewed on 1 st June 2016. ATO. Gov, Collectables and personal use assets, viewed on 1 st June 2016.

Nursing Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Nursing Case Study - Essay Example I have also experienced various treatment procedures of many AIDS patients and faced difficulties while handling these cases, as the professional methods are continuously changing along with the practices that are based on treatment skills. In order to reflect on the subject matter, I have chosen Gibbs reflective model of nursing. Gibbs model of nursing involves a description of the case, evaluation of the treatment experience, diagnostics of patient’s situation, a proposed action plan, and final recommendations (Jasper, 2003). I have also made use of NHIVNA competency to treat an outpatient of HIV/AIDS. Additionally, I have also employed the case study method to demonstrate learning and applications of nursing practices that I have experienced while treating an AIDS outpatient. Scenario/Description of the Incidence: One of the cases that I have dealt with is that of Mr. Jones David, a 52-year-old white American man, who visited the HIV clinic for the first time in his life. L ooking at the diagnostics and tests undertaken, I recommended him to visit me in the clinic after diagnosing him with HIV during my visit to the central jail. For me as a professional nurse it was very important to note down his social interactions, because this has a direct impact on the patient’s health. ... I and other nurses checked all prisoners and took blood samples in order to diagnose prisoners for different health related issues. When Mr. David was diagnosed with HIV, I tended to take his treatment as a challenge and began the investigation about his lifestyle and measure of health consciousness that have put him at a higher risk of HIV disease (RN.com, 2005). However, he kept on denying his involvement in activities such as sex with other men in jail or intake of abusive drugs while he was imprisoned. When I interviewed him, he told me that he was married before going to prison. However, his wife divorced him after six years of his imprisonment in jail. I also learned that he has two young kids with whom he is no more in contact after his divorce. This gave me a clear idea that he currently lacks a family lifestyle and thus he is less conscious about his well-being. Records of his family life and social circumstances helped me understand that he became home sick and victimized b y isolation as he has spent 18 years in prison, where he never received proper assistance or health care facilities. This is a prime reason behind his declining health condition and psychological disturbance he faced due to family disorientation (RN.com, 2005). As I diagnosed his health conditions and social context of his illness, I discussed his case report with senior health practitioners, because I am still at learning stage and I am unable to treat HIV patients on my own. With the report I discussed with seniors, I obtained a summarized context of David’s case as to how a patient of HIV disease undergoes chronic mental disturbance. This situation is more evident in the case of David

English Contract Law situational question Essay

English Contract Law situational question - Essay Example Lastly, this paper will establish whether is a liability on the part of A.com owed to University of Warwick on promissory estoppels. According to the agreement the contract was to be performed by 1 September, 2013. However, A.com created a software that served only five functions but could not manage to create task V. Through the concept promissory estoppels a non-contractual promise that lacks consideration can be rendered executable to prevent an injustice2. The University made an ultimatum of four weeks for the remaining task to be accomplished failure to which the contract would be terminated but A.com wanted more time. A.com had a duty to make sure that the software was complete in four weeks through the non-contractual promise made by the institution that the contract will be terminated if the software is not delivered. Therefore, the University has a right to claim to claim for expense wastage in hiring A.com to develop the software because the company spent 1.5 Million pounds to buy an alternative software after the system that was created backfired. This decision can be similar to the case in CCC Films ( London) Ltd v Impact Quadrant Films Ltd3 the judge allowed the petitioner to abandon its petition for loss of profits at the last phase of the trial and to replace the petition for a claim for expenditure wasted. The interpretation of the judge was that the case as allowing the defendant to provide proof, the burden rested on the case. It was reasoned that part of the expenses would have been consumed in any occurrence since the bargain was often going to be a loss event. The loss in this case was the cost incurred by the University to buy the alternate software and the cost incurred in the compensation of the students for exposure of their confidential information. Besides in this scenario, A.com has a burden to prove that their contract was terminated prematurely and hence amounted to wrongful termination. In spite of

Labeling theory Essay Example for Free

Labeling theory Essay Please complete the following exercises, remembering that you are in an academic setting and should remain unbiased, considerate, and professional when completing this worksheet. Part I Select three of the identity categories below and name or describe at least 3 related stereotypes for each: †¢ Race †¢ Ethnicity †¢ Religion †¢ Gender †¢ Sexual orientation †¢ Age †¢ Disability. |Category |Stereotype 1 |Stereotype 2 |Stereotype 3 | |Race |Asians are genuises |African Americans are amazing at |All white people are racist | | | |all sports | | |Gender |Woman are moody |Women can’t drive |Men are rude | |Disability |Disabled people are not smart |Disabled are weak |Disabled need help with everything| Part II Answer each question in 50 to 100 words related to those stereotypes. Provide citations for all the sources you use. What are the positive aspects of stereotypes, if any? o I do not think that there any positive aspects of stereotypes. I know that there are positive stereotypes, but in general stereotypes are opinions and are negative most of the time. Just about every stereotype that is out there is offensive to someone and can hurt someones feelings. For example, a stereotype that hurts me is my weight. People automatically assume that since I am heavier that I am lazy and do not take care of myself or my kids and that is far from being true. What are the negative aspects of stereotypes? o There are many different negative aspects of stereotypes. One negative aspect is that a lot of stereotypes are highly offensice to some people and can cause people to become upset or angry. Another negative aspect is that as long as we have stereotypes people are going to continue being prejudice. Part III Answer each question in 50 to 150 words related to those stereotypes. Provide citations for all the sources you use. Define stereotypes and prejudice. What is the difference between stereotyping and prejudice? Use examples to illustrate the differences. o Stereotypes are unreliable assumptions that are made towards a certain group without taking individual differences into mind. Prejudice is simply a negative attitude towards a group of people. The difference between prejudice and stereotypes is that stereotypes are made towards everyone involved in a certain group whether the opinion be positive or negative stereotypes links everyone in that group to be the same even though they are not. For example, a stereotype would be something like saying all gay guys are wimps. Prejudice on the otherhand is completely negative and affects an entire group such as a racial or religious group. An example of prejudice would be something like someone saying they hate all African Americans because their skin is a different color. What is the relationship between stereotyping and prejudice? o The relationship between stereotyping and prejudice is that both of them affect an entire group of people without taking into consideration the individual differences. Prejudice is the beginning circle of this negativity. People are prejudice and split different people into different groups. Once this is done stereotyping comes into play where people sort those groups into smaller categories by making opinions of the groups without seeing the differences. What can be done to prevent prejudice from occurring? o There are a few different ways that we can try and prevent prejudice from occurring. One way is education and research. If people took more time to learn about different people and the diversity that we have in this world I think that they would see all of the interesting things in others and would help prevent some of the prejudice. Another way that we can try and prevent prejudice is by eliminating stereotypes and not labeling people.

Early Colonial Settlements :: American America History

Early Colonial Settlements In the early seventeen hundreds, after the establishment of both New England and the Chesapeake, many similarities and differences arose between the two settlements. Some of the similarities and differences included such things as family life, economy, life expectancy, and society. In the Chesapeake area, the life expectancy and general healthiness of the settlers was dangerously low. Diseases like malaria, typhoid, and dysentery had a deadly effect on the inhabitants of the area, cutting 10 years off the life expectancy. Family life in the Chesapeake was also a problem. Women were very scarce which made a strong family life almost impossible. Unmarried pregnancies were everywhere and marriages did not usually last for very long due to a death of one of the partners. This lifestyle was greatly contrasted in the area of New England. New Englanders enjoyed clean water and moderate temperatures that slowed the spread of diseases among the people. The people of New England actually had a life expectancy of ten years more than that of a person living in England. Also, in New England the family life was very strong and important. Women usually wed by their twenties and had around ten children, with about eight of those that would survive. Another contrast in the lifestyle of the New Englanders to that of those in the Chesapeake was that women in the south would usually acquire land from their husbands after they died. In New England, however, the women would give up their property rights at marriage because widowhood was much less common and also because it did not promote the unity of marriage. One common point between the two civilizations was the very prominent class distinctions. In both areas settlers also fought to restructure these systems. Rebellions such as Bacon's 1676 rebellion in Virginia, and Leisler 1689 to 1691 rebellion in New York were due to the settler's unhappiness with the social class distinctions. Another similarity was that of relatively cheap and wages which almost tripled that of the English. Unity in New England was something that was not commonly found in the Chesapeake. New England's puritan ways easily molded this tightly knight colony. In the Chesapeake this was not the case. Farmers were more of loners who did not move or live in very close communities. New England grew in a more organized way, unlike the Chesapeake that was very spontaneous in its growth. Early Colonial Settlements :: American America History Early Colonial Settlements In the early seventeen hundreds, after the establishment of both New England and the Chesapeake, many similarities and differences arose between the two settlements. Some of the similarities and differences included such things as family life, economy, life expectancy, and society. In the Chesapeake area, the life expectancy and general healthiness of the settlers was dangerously low. Diseases like malaria, typhoid, and dysentery had a deadly effect on the inhabitants of the area, cutting 10 years off the life expectancy. Family life in the Chesapeake was also a problem. Women were very scarce which made a strong family life almost impossible. Unmarried pregnancies were everywhere and marriages did not usually last for very long due to a death of one of the partners. This lifestyle was greatly contrasted in the area of New England. New Englanders enjoyed clean water and moderate temperatures that slowed the spread of diseases among the people. The people of New England actually had a life expectancy of ten years more than that of a person living in England. Also, in New England the family life was very strong and important. Women usually wed by their twenties and had around ten children, with about eight of those that would survive. Another contrast in the lifestyle of the New Englanders to that of those in the Chesapeake was that women in the south would usually acquire land from their husbands after they died. In New England, however, the women would give up their property rights at marriage because widowhood was much less common and also because it did not promote the unity of marriage. One common point between the two civilizations was the very prominent class distinctions. In both areas settlers also fought to restructure these systems. Rebellions such as Bacon's 1676 rebellion in Virginia, and Leisler 1689 to 1691 rebellion in New York were due to the settler's unhappiness with the social class distinctions. Another similarity was that of relatively cheap and wages which almost tripled that of the English. Unity in New England was something that was not commonly found in the Chesapeake. New England's puritan ways easily molded this tightly knight colony. In the Chesapeake this was not the case. Farmers were more of loners who did not move or live in very close communities. New England grew in a more organized way, unlike the Chesapeake that was very spontaneous in its growth.

Relationship Between Teacher And Students

Similarly harmonizing to Moloi et Al. ( as cited in Mtika & A ; Gates, 2010 ) , group work is one of the schemes that can be utile in student-centered attacks. It does non merely assist pupils to discourse and portion thoughts with each other, but it besides helps to better pupils ‘ apprehension of some constructs and develop their communicating accomplishments. In the student-centered schoolroom, the instructor has to believe of pupils ‘ demands and the schoolroom is considered as a topographic point where pupils work together, in groups and as persons by promoting them to take portion in the acquisition procedure all the clip ( Jones, 2007 ) . In the student-centered schoolroom, the instructor should cognize about their pupils ‘ background. Teachers should see what they may cognize or make non cognize about their pupils because it helps to make the schoolroom conditions that are antiphonal to the larning demands of the pupils ( Hodson, 2002 ) . Furthermore, in soc ietal constructivist classrooms the relationship between instructor and pupils are much more dynamically involved, so that the instructor ‘s function is much more demanding to let and actively promote acknowledgment, rating, and Reconstruction ( Gunstone and Northfield every bit cited in Hand et al. , 1997 ) . A A A A A The size for effectual student-centered schoolrooms can be organized into big group ( category with 25-30 pupils ) , average size ( 5-8 pupils ) , little group ( 3-5 pupils ) , pair group ( 2 pupils ) and a instructor and a pupil ( merely in particular status ) ( MoEYS, 2002a ) . Furthermore, schoolroom agreements, particularly classroom infinite and resources like chairs and tabular arraies for big group activities are besides of import because appropriate resources helps to back up the effectivity and efficiency of direction to the pupils.2. 4 Definition of the Student-Centered Approaches to LearningA A A A A A The footings â€Å" student-centered attacks † A and â€Å" learner-centered attacks † A to larning are the same and whilst some articles used the term student-centered attacks and other articles used the term learner-centered attacks, the two footings were used interchangeably. Both footings focus on the demands of pupils who as scholars are actively involved in the acquisition procedure ( Utecht, 2003 ) . The term â€Å" student-centered attacks † is used in this survey because this term is officially applied in Kampuchean course of study and ministry educational literature. Furthermore, the student-centered attacks are broader for illustration, a pupil can be defined as scholar, but a scholar may non be defined as pupil. For illustration, a adult male wants to cognize about the educational jurisprudence in Cambodia, so the adult male can travel to library or seek in the MoEYS web site to read and larn about the jurisprudence. The adult male therefore is non a pupil, but he is a scholar. A A A A A A The student-centered attacks to larning are defined as learning methodological analysiss associated with an attack to larning where pupils are the chief characters in the acquisition procedure, and actively larn in a socially synergistic manner ( Brush & A ; Saye, 2000 ) . The student-centered attacks are designed to help pupils to larn best from meaningful life experiences, societal interactions, and scientific experimentation ( Pedersen & A ; Liu, 2003 ) . A A A A A A The student-centered attacks to larning focal point on single pupil ‘s demands and growing, because these attacks are intended to develop the potency of every single pupil and promote their personal growing and involvements ( Morris, 1996 ) . The student-centered attacks are besides considered effectual options to the traditional teacher-centered attacks. Similarly harmonizing to Courtney ( 2008 ) , it looks really different from the traditional didactic instruction methods that are widely applied in Cambodia. These traditional instruction methods depend on the direct direction of the instructor and verbal and written repeat with small accent on understanding but strong accent on memory and callback. Kember ( as cited in O'Neill & A ; McMahon, 2005 ) and Hirumi ( 2002 ) stated the student-centered attacks are in contrast to the traditional teacher-centered attacks. In the teacher-centered attacks, instructors are at the centre of the acquisition and learning procedu re and supply direction to pupils ; the pupils are the empty vass into which the instructor pours their cognition. This position contrasts aggressively to that of constructivist theory where we see that pupils are cardinal to the acquisition procedure, they are non viewed as empty vass but instead actively take part in doing cognition by believing and work outing jobs for themselves, and developing their self-pride that is indispensable for larning and decision-making throughout life ( American Psychological Association, 1993 ; Hirumi, 2002 ; MoEYS, 2005 ) . A A A A A A The nucleus rule of the student-centered acquisition attacks is that pupils have different abilities, demands, and involvements for how they learn, and they construct cognition and significance and learn in different ways ( Brady, 2006 ; Murdoch & A ; Wilson, 2008 ; Hirumi, 2002 ) . The American Psychological Association ( 1993 ) stated that pupils have assorted capablenesss and involvements for acquisition. â€Å" Persons are born with and develop alone capablenesss and endowments and have acquired through acquisition and societal socialization different penchants for how they like to larn and the gait at which they learn † ( American Psychological Association, 1993, p. 9 ) . Harmonizing to Meyer & A ; Jones ( as cited in Hirumi, 2002 ) , in the category pupils talk, listen, write, read, and reflect on content, thoughts, issues, and concerns in order to build their ain significance. â€Å" In student-centered environments, scholars are given direct entree to the knowledge-base and work separately and in little groups to work out reliable jobs ( Hirumi, 2002, p. 506 ) . Similarly, harmonizing to Jones ( 2007 ) , a student-centered category is a topographic point where pupils ‘ demands are considered, as a group and as persons, and pupils are encouraged to take part in the acquisition procedure all the clip. At different times, pupils may work entirely, in braces, or in groups. A A A A A A As a theory of epistemology, constructivism proposes that pupils bring their existing experiences and beliefs, every bit good as universe positions and their cultural histories, into the acquisition procedure when they internally build cognition by interacting with the environment ( Yilmaz, 2008 ) . Constructivism is considered as a procedure that pupils actively construct their cognition upon cognition that they already have ( Motschnig-Pitrik & A ; Holzinger, 2002 ) . Social constructivist, Vygotsky believed that â€Å" acquisition is a societal procedure in which scholars developed understanding through interaction with the environment around them † ( Brush & A ; Saye, 2000, p. 5 ) . Harmonizing to Jonassen ; Duffy & A ; Jonassen ( as cited in Brush & A ; Saye, 2000 ) , the demand for more student-centered acquisition activities have been promoted by the protagonists of the constructivist epistemology of acquisition. A A A A A A In short, the cardinal features of the student-centered attacks to larning stress students'A anterior cognition and experience, developing Bloom Taxonomy believing accomplishments, particularly critical thought and job resolution, researching single acquisition demands and involvements, advancing active pupil engagement, and developing motive for life-long acquisition ( American Psychological Association, 1993 ; Brush & A ; Saye, 2000 ; Hirumi, 2002 ; Mtika & A ; Gates, 2010 ) . However, there is no individual scheme that helps pupils to hold effectual larning all the clip and there is no learning scheme that is better than others in every circumstance. Each learning scheme has its strength and failing, so instructors need to do determinations and chose instruction schemes that help their pupils to accomplish the acquisition results ( Killen, 2003 ) . Similarly harmonizing to Hab & A ; Em ( 2003 ) , to take and efficaciously use a instruction scheme the instructor has to judge many times because choosing an appropriate instruction scheme is based on the determination whether we provide knowledge to pupils through direct direction ( teacher-centered attacks ) or indirect facilitation ( student-centered attacks ) .2. 5 Student-Centered Learning as Adopted by the Kampuchean Ministry of EducationA A A A A A 2.5.1 Vision of acquisition and instructionA A A A A A Learning has many manners such as acquisition by seeing, listening, composing, reading, watching telecasting, self-experiment, pattern, believing, playing games, analyze circuits and so on. These manners of larning supply cognition to the scholars. However different larning can hold different consequence. Learners may bring forth different larning results with a different acquisition manner to another pupil ( MoEYS, 2002b ) . For illustration, those who learn by listening will bury all or retrieve a small after several yearss. Those who merely stand and see people swimming can non swim, but if th ey learn to swim themselves, they can swim efficaciously. Peoples hence can make something when they involve themselves. Harmonizing to Confucianism, it is believed that â€Å" If you tell me, I will bury. If you show me, I may retrieve. But if you involve me, I can make and understand † ( MoEYS, 2008 ) . A A A A A A The Kampuchean authorities ‘s vision of the intents for acquisition and instruction functions has bit by bit changed between societies and from one a period of clip to another ( MoEYS, 2002a ) . Previous learning methods considered effectual and appropriate was when instructors were considered to be the cognition suppliers. Teachers provided cognition and told pupils, and pupils listened to instructors and followed instructors without developing their ain thoughts or understanding. In this context instructors had the power because they had the cognition that pupils needed to be able to come on through the instruction system. This vision was later officially abandoned because the acquisition results were considered unsuitable to both the demands of the state for skilled minds and they compared ill to the wider international educational context. A A A A A A In the undermentioned period, another new learning method was integrated called ‘question and reply ‘ method. The instructor raised inquiries and the pupils answered. This method was adopted in the belief that it would convey better consequences for pupils. The inquiry and reply method was subsequently changed and reformed to what was known as the ‘active method ‘because this method required much relationship between instructor and pupils. For the last vision, it was believed that creative activity merely relationship between instructor and pupils was non plenty. To hold better consequence for pupils, relationship between pupils and pupils must be created in the instruction and acquisition procedure. Teachers have to fix pupils to work in groups, so pupils can interchange their thoughts, work hand in glove, and assist each other in larning. This last vision is a really of import portion of student-centered attacks ( Hab & A ; Em, 2003 ; Inspector, 2002 ; Ung, 2008 ) . These attacks to larning and learning shifted the power repositing of the instructor from one who held all the cognition to a more equal one where instructors spouse with, sometimes lead, their pupils into new understanding and cognition.A A A A A A 2.5.2 Principle and theoryA A A A A A Theories that are applied and relevant to learning and larning in the current Kampuchean school system are: Learning is making new cognition Learning is interchanging experience ( Inspector, 2002 ) A A A A A A The theories of larning above are besides clearly identifiable as constructs of constructivism. Although constructivism is non a theory of acquisition, the rules have been applied by many pedagogues in instruction and acquisition, particularly, but non merely, in scientific discipline instruction ( Han et al. , 1997 ; Yilmaz, 2008 ) . Constructivism emphasizes that cognition and significance are constructed by the human head ; in consequence scholars create links between their bing cognition and new experience and do new cognition constructions and significance ( Yilmaz, 2008 ) . A A A A A A The function of instructors and pupils are changed by the acceptance of the student-centered attacks to larning. Students are given greater duty for their acquisition and the instructors ‘ functions change where they become more coordinators or facilitators of the acquisition experiences. Students are encouraged to research the cognition by themselves and with other scholars and the instructors help the acquisition procedure by demoing pupils waies of cognition. In this new function in the schoolroom, the instructors become portion of the acquisition procedure and acts as a usher and a resource for the pupils ( Utecht, 2003 ) . Furthermore, the importance of school is to supply multiple chances to pupils to make cognition and understanding by themselves through research, existent experience and work outing jobs.

Environment Data

Environmental Studies For Undergraduate Courses subhamsahu CORE MODULE SYLLABUS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES FOR UNDER GRADUATE COURSES OF ALL BRANCHES OF HIGHER EDUCATION Vision The importance of environmental science and environmental studies cannot be disputed. The need for sustainable development is a key to the future of mankind. Continuing problems of pollution, loss of forget, solid waste disposal, degradation of environment, issues like economic productivity and national security, Global warming, the depletion of ozone layer and loss of biodiversity have made everyone aware of environmental issues.The United Nations Coference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janerio in 1992 and world Summit on Sustainable Development at Johannesburg in 2002 have drawn the attention of people around the globe to the deteriorating condition of our environment. It is clear that no citizen of the earth can afford to be ignorant of environment issues. Environmental management has capture d the attention of health care managers. Managing environmental hazards has become very important. Human beings have been interested in ecology since the beginning of civilization.Even our ancient scriptures have emphasized about practices and values of environmental conservation. It is now even more critical than ever before for mankind as a whole to have a clear understanding of environmental concerns and to follow sustainable development practices. India is rich in biodiversity which provides various resources for people. It is also basis for biotechnology. Only about 1. 7 million living organisms have been diescribed and named globally. Still manay more remain to be identified and described. Attempts are made to I conserve them in ex-situ and in-situ situations.Intellectual property rights (IPRs) have become importanat in a biodiversity-rich country like India to protect microbes, plants and animals that have useful genetic properties. Destruction of habitats, over-use of energy resource and environmental pollution have been found to be responsible for the loss of a large number of life-forms. It is feared that a large proportion of life on earth may get wiped out in the near future. Inspite of the deteriorating status of the environment, study of environment have so far not received adequate attention in our academic programmes.Recognizing this, the Hon’ble Supreme Court directed the UGC to introduce a basic course on environment at every level in college education. Accordingly, the matter was considered by UGC and it was decided that a six months compulsory core module course in environmental studies may be prepared and compulsorily implemented in all the University/Colleges of India. The experts committee appointed by the UGC has looked into all the pertinent questions, issues and other relevant matters. This was followed by framing of the core module syllabus for environmental studies for undergraduate courses of all branches of Higher Education .We are deeply conscious that there are bound to be gaps between the ideal and real. Geniune endeavour is required to minimize the gaps by intellectual and material inputs. The success of this course will depend on the initiative and drive of the teachers and the receptive students. SYLLABUS Unit 1 : Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies Definition, scope and importance (2 lectures) Need for public awareness. II Unit 2 : Natural Resources : Renewable and non-renewable resources : Natural resources and associated problems. ) Forest resources : Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies. Timber extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forest and tribal people. b) Water resources : Use and over-utilization of surface and ground water, floods, drought, conflicts over water, dams-benefits and problems. c) Mineral resources : Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources, case studies. d) Food resources : World food prob lems, changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing, effects of modern agriculture, fertilizer-pesticide problems, water logging, salinity, case studies. ) Energy resources : Growing energy needs, renewable and non renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy sources. Case studies. f) †¢ †¢ Land resources : Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced landslides, soil erosion and desertification. Role of an individual in conservation of natural resources. Equitable use of resoureces for sustainable lifestyles. (8 lectures) Unit 3 : Ecosystems †¢ Concept of an ecosystem. III †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Structure and function of an ecosystem. Producers, consumers and decomposers. Energy flow in the ecosystem. Ecological succession.Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids. Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the following ecosystem :a. Forest ecosystem b. Grassland ecosystem c. Desert ecosystem d. Aq uatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries) (6 lectures) Unit 4 : Biodiversity and its conservation †¢ †¢ †¢ Introduction – Definition : genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. Biogeographical classification of India Value of biodiversity : consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values Biodiversity at global, National and local levels.Inida as a mega-diversity nation †¢ †¢ IV †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Hot-sports of biodiversity. Threats to biodiversity : habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts. Endangered and endemic species of India Conservation of biodiversity : In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity. (8 lectures) Unit 5 : Environmental Pollution Definition †¢ Cause, effects and control measures of :a. b. c. d. e. f. g. †¢ Air pollution Water pollution Soil pollution Marine pollution Noise pollution Thermal pollution Nuclear hazards Solid waste Man agement : Causes, effects and control measures of urban and industrial wastes. †¢ †¢ Role of an individual in prevention of pollution. Pollution case studies. Diaster management : floods, earthquake, cyclone and landslides. (8 lectures) V Unit 6 : Social Issues and the Environment †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ From Unsustainable to Sustainable development Urban problems related to energy Water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management Resettlement and rahabilitation of people; its problems and concerns. Case Studies †¢ †¢ Environmental ethics : Issues and possible solutions. Climate change, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, nuclear accidents and holocaust.Case Studies. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Wasteland reclamation. Consumerism and waste products. Environment Protection Act. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. Water (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act Wildlife Protec tion Act Forest Conservation Act Issues involved in enforcement of environmental legislation. Public awareness. (7 lectures) Unit 7 : Human Population and the Environment †¢ †¢ Population growth, variation among nations. Population explosion – Family Welfare Programme. VI †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Environment and human health. Human Rights. Value Education.HIV/AIDS. Women and Child Welfare. Role of Information Technology in Environment and human health. Case Studies. (6 lectures) Unit 8 : Field work †¢ Visit to a local area to document environmental assetsriver/forest/grassland/hill/mountain †¢ †¢ †¢ Visit to a local polluted site-Urban/Rural/Industrial/Agricultural Study of common plants, insects, birds. Study of simple ecosystems-pond, river, hill slopes, etc. (Field work Equal to 5 lecture hours) VII SIX MONTHS COMPULSORY CORE MODULE COURSE IN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES : FOR UNDERGRADUATES Teaching MethodologiesThe co re Moudle Syllabus for Environment Studies includes class room teaching and Field Work. The syllabus is divided into eight units covering 50 lectures. The first seven units will cover 45 lectures which are class room based to enhance knowledge skills and attitute to environment. Unit eight is based on field activites which will be covered in five lecture hours and would provide student first hand knowledge on varios local environmental aspects. Field experience is one of the most effective learning tools for environmental concerns.This moves out of the scope of the text book mode of teaching into the realm of real learning in the field, where the teacher merely acts as a catalyst to interpret what the student observes or discovers in his/her own environment. Field studies are as essential as class work and form an irreplaceable synergistic tool in the entire learning process. Course material provided by UGC for class room teaching and field activities be utilized. The universities/c olleges can also draw upon expertise of outside resource persons for teaching purpose.Environmental Core Module shall be integrated into the teaching programmes of all undergraduate courses. Annual System : The duration of the course will be 50 lectures. The exam will be conducted along with the Annual Examination. VIII Semester System : The Environment course of 50 lectures will be conducted in the second semester and the examination shall be conducted at the end of the second semester. Credt System : Exam Pattern : The course will be awarded 4 credits. In case of awarding the marks, the question paper should carry 100 marks. The structure of the question paper being :Part-A, Short answer pattern Part-B, Essay type with inbuilt choice Part-C, Field Work – 25 marks 50 marks 25 marks IX REFERENCE a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) n) o) p) q) r) s) Agarwal, K. C. 2001 Environmental Biology, Nidi Publ. Ltd. Bikaner. Bharucha Erach, The Biodiversity of India, Mapin Publishin g Pvt. Ltd. , Ahmedabad – 380 013, India, Email:[email  protected] net (R) Brunner R. C. , 1989, Hazardous Waste Incineration, McGraw Hill Inc. 480p Clark R. S. , Marine Pollution, Clanderson Press Oxford (TB) Cunningham, W. P. Cooper, T. H. Gorhani, E & Hepworth, M. T. 2001, Environmental Encyclopedia, Jaico Publ.House, Mumabai, 1196p De A. K. , Environmental Chemistry, Wiley Eastern Ltd. Down to Earth, Centre for Science and Environment (R) Gleick, H. P. 1993. Water in crisis, Pacific Institute for Studies in Dev. , Environment & Security. Stockholm Env. Institute Oxford Univ. Press. 473p Hawkins R. E. , Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay (R) Heywood, V. H & Waston, R. T. 1995. Global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge Univ. Press 1140p. Jadhav, H & Bhosale, V. M. 1995. Environmental Protection and Laws. Himalaya Pub. House, Delhi 284 p. Mckinney, M. L. School, R. M. 1996. Environmental Science systems & Solutions, Web enhanced edition. 639p. Mhaskar A. K. , Matter Hazardous, Techno-Science Publication (TB) Miller T. G. Jr. Environmental Science, Wadsworth Publishing Co. (TB) Odum, E. P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. W. B. Saunders Co. USA, 574p Rao M N. & Datta, A. K. 1987. Waste Water treatment. Oxford & IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd. 345p. Sharma B. K. , 2001. Environmental Chemistry. Geol Publ. House, Meerut Survey of the Environment, The Hindu (M) Townsend C. , Harper J, and Michael Begon, Essentials of Ecology, Blackwell Science (TB) X ) u) v) Trivedi R. K. , Handbook of Environmental Laws, Rules Guidelines, Compliances and Stadards, Vol I and II, Enviro Media (R) Trivedi R. K. and P. K. Goel, Introduction to air pollution, Techno-Science Publication (TB) Wanger K. D. , 1998 Environmental Management. W. B. Saunders Co. Philadelphia, USA 499p (M) Magazine (R) Reference (TB) Textbook XI Mmbers of the Expert Committee on Environmental Studies 1. Prof. Erach Bharucha Director Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of En vironment Education & Research, Pune Prof. C. Manoharachary Department of Botany Osmania University Hyderabad Prof.S. Thayumanavan Director Centre for Environmental Studies Anna University, Chennai Prof. D. C. Goswami Head, Deptt. Of Environment Science Gauhati University Guwahati-781 014 Shri R. Mehta Director EE Division Ministry of Environment & Forest Prayavaran Bhawan, CGO Complex Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110 003 UGC OFFICIALS 6. Dr. N. K. Jain Joint Secretary UGC, New Delhi 2. 3. 4. 5. XII Textbook for Environmental Studies For Undergraduate Courses of all Branches of Higher Education Erach Bharucha for University Grants Commission Natural Resources i Preliminary Pages. p65 1 4/9/2004, 5:06 PMCredits Principal author and editor – Erach Bharucha Unit 1 – Erach Bharucha Unit 2 – Erach Bharucha, Behafrid Patel Unit 3 – Erach Bharucha Unit 4 – Erach Bharucha Unit 5 – Shamita Kumar Unit 6 – Erach Bharucha, Shalini Nair, Behafrid Patel U nit 7 – Erach Bharucha, Shalini Nair, Behafrid Patel Unit 8 – Erach Bharucha, Shambhvi Joshi Case Studies – Prasanna Kolte Co-ordination and compilation – Behafrid Patel Textbook Design – Narendra Kulkarni (Mudra), Sushma Durve Manuscript review and editing – Chinmaya Dunster, Behafrid Patel Artists – Sushma Durve and Anagha Deshpande CD ROM – Jaya Rai and Prasanna Kolte Copyright Text – Erach Bharucha/ UGC, 2004. Photographs – Erach Bharucha Drawings – Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research All rights reserved. Distributed by University Grants Commission, New Delhi. 2004. ii Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages. p65 2 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM Vision The importance of Environmental Studies cannot be disputed. The need for sustainable development is a key to the future of mankind. The degradation of our environment is linked to continuing problems of pollutio n, loss of orest, solid waste disposal, issues related to economic productivity and national as well as ecological security. The increasing levels of global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer and a serious loss of biodiversity have also made everyone aware of growing environmental concerns. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio De Janero in 1992, and the World Summit on Sustainable Development at Zoharbex in 2002 have drawn the attention of people around the globe to the developing condition of our environment. It is clear that no citizen of the earth can afford to be ignorant of environmental issues.Environmental management has become a part of the health care sector. Managing environmental hazards and preventing possible disasters has become an urgent need. Human beings have been interested in ecology since the beginning of civilization. Even our ancient scriptures have included practices and values related with environmental conservation. It is now even more critical than ever before for mankind as a whole to have a clear understanding of environmental concerns and to follow sustainable development practices. India is rich in biodiversity which provides various resources for people.It is also the basis for biotechnological development. Only about 1. 8 million living organisms have been described and named globally. Still many more remain to be identified and described. Attempts are made to conserve them in ex-situ and in-situ situation. Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) have become important in a biodiversity rich country like India to protect microbes, plants and animals that have useful genetic properties. Destruction of habitats, over use of energy resources and environmental pollution have been found to be responsible for the loss of a large number of life forms.It is feared that a large proportion of life on earth may get wiped out in the near future. In spite of the developing status of the environment, the formal study of environment has so far not received adequate attention in our academic performances. Recognisation thus the Hon’ble Supreme Court directed the UGC to introduce a basic course on environment for every student. Accordingly the matter was considered by the UGC and it was decided that a six months compulsory core module course in environmental studies may be prepared and compulsorily implemented in all the Universities/ Colleges in India.The Expert Committee appointed by the UGC has looked into all the pertinent questions, issues and other relevant matters. This was followed by framing of the Core Module Syllabus for Environmental Studies for undergraduate courses of all branches of Higher Education. The Committee is deeply conscious that there are bound to be gaps between what is considered ideal and the present syllabus. The Committee has attempted to minimize the gaps by intellectual and material inputs. The success of this course will however depend on the ini tiative and drive of the teachers and their students.Members of the Curriculum Development Committee Natural Resources iii Preliminary Pages. p65 3 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM Members of the Expert Committee on Environmental Studies 1. Prof. Erach Bharucha Director, Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research, Pune 2. Prof. C Manoharachary Department of Botany, Osmania University, Hyderabad 3. Prof. S Thayumanavan Director Center for Environmental Studies, Anna University, Chennai 4. Prof. D C Goswami Head, Department of Environment Science, Gauhati University, Guwahati – 781 014 5.Shri R Mehta Director EE Division Ministry of Environment and Forests, Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110 003 UGC Officials 6. Dr. NK Jain Joint Secretary, UGC, New Delhi iv Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages. p65 4 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM Six Months Compulsory Core Module Course in Environmental Studies: for Undergraduate Studen ts Teaching Methodologies The Core Module Syllabus for Environmental Studies includes classroom teaching and fieldwork. The syllabus is divided into eight units covering 50 lectures.The first seven units which will cover 45 lectures are classroom teaching based to enhance knowledge skilled and attitude to environment. Unit eight is based on field activities and would be covered over five lecture hours and would provide students with first hand knowledge on various local environmental aspects. Field experience is one of the most effective learning tools for environmental concerns. This moves out of the scope of the textbook mode of teaching, into the realm of real learning in the field, where the teacher acts as a catalyst to interpret what the student observes or discovers in his/her own environment.Field studies area as essential as class work and form an irreplaceable synergistic tool in the entire learning process. The course material provided by UGC for class room teaching and f ield activities should be utilised. The Universities/ colleges can draw upon expertise of outside resource persons for teaching purposes. The Environmental Core Module shall be integrated into the teaching programs of all undergraduate courses. Annual System: The duration of the course will be 50 lectures. The exam will be conducted along with the Annual Examination.Semester System: the Environment course of 50 lectures will be conducted in the second semester and the examinations shall be conducted at the end of the second semester. Credit System: The core course will be awarded 4 credits Exam Pattern: In case of awarding the marks the question paper should carry 100 marks. The structure of the question paper being: Part A, Short answer pattern Part B, Essay type built choice Part C, Field Work – 25 marks – 50 marks – 25 marks Natural Resources v Preliminary Pages. p65 5 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM Further Readings 1. Agarwal KC, 2001. Environmental Biology, Nidi Publish ers Ltd. Bikaner. . Bharucha Erach, 2003. The Biodiversity of India, Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd, Ahmedabad – 380013, India. Email: [email  protected] net 3. Brunner RC, 1989, Hazardous Waste Incineration, McGraw Hill Inc. 480pgs. 4. Clark RS, Marine Pollution, Clanderson Press, Oxofrd (TB). 5. Cunningham WP, Cooper TH, Gorhani E & Hepworth MT, 2001. Environmental Encyclopaedia, Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai, 1196pgs. 6. De AK, Environmental Chemistry, Wiley Eastern Ltd. 7. Down to Earth, Center for Science and Environment (R) 8. Gleick HP, 1993. Water in Crisis, Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment and Security.Stockholm Environmental Institute, Oxford University Press, 473pgs. 9. Hawkins RE, Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay (R) 10. Heywood VH, and Watson RT, 1995. global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge University Press 1140pgs. 11. Jadhav H and Bhosale VM, 1995. Environmental Protection and Laws. Himalay a Publishing House, Delhi 284pgs. 12. Mckinney ML and Schoch RM, 1996. Environmental Science Systems and Solutions. Web enhanced edition, 639pgs. 13. Mhaskar AK, Matter Hazardous, Techno-Science Publications (TB) 14. Miller TG, Jr. Environmental Science, Wadsworth Publishing CO. TB) 15. Odum EP, 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. WB Saunders Co. USA, 574pgs. 16. Rao MN and Datta AK, 1987. Waste Water Treatment. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. 345pgs. vi Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages. p65 6 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM Contents PREFACE FOREWORD ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS UNIT 1: THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 1. 1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE 1. 1. 1 Definition 1. 1. 2 Scope 1. 1. 3 Importance NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS 1. 2. 1 Institutions in Environment 1. 2. 2 People in Environment 3 3 3 5 8 9 12 xiii xv xvi 1. 2 UNIT 2: NATURAL RESOURCES . 1 INTRODUCTION 2. 2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES 2. 2. 1 Natural resources and associate d problems 2. 2. 2 Non-renewable resources 2. 2. 3 Renewable resources a. Forest Resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies. Timber extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people b. Water Resources: Use and over-utilisation of surface and ground water, floods, drought, conflicts over water, dams – benefits and problems. c. Mineral Resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources, case studies. d.Food Resources: World food problems, Changes in landuse by agriculture and grazing, Effects of modern agriculture, Fertilizer/ pesticide problems, Water logging and salinity e. Energy Resources: Increasing energy needs, Renewable/ non renewable, Use of Alternate energy sources, Case studies f. Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man-induced land-slides, soil erosion and desertification. 16 20 20 22 22 23 26 30 32 35 48 Natural Resources vii Preliminary Pages. p65 7 4/9/200 4, 5:06 PM 2. 3 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 2. 4 EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES 0 51 UNIT 3: ECOSYSTEMS 3. 1 Concept of an ecosystem 3. 1. 1 Understanding ecosystems 3. 1. 2 Ecosystem degradation 3. 1. 3 Resource utilisation 3. 2 Structure and functions of an ecosystem 3. 3 Producers, consumers and decomposers 3. 4 Energy flow in the ecosystem 3. 4. 1 The water cycle 3. 4. 2 The Carbon cycle 3. 4. 3 The Oxygen cycle 3. 4. 4 The Nitrogen cycle 3. 4. 5 The energy cycle 3. 4. 6 Integration of cycles in nature 3. 5 Ecological succession 3. 6 Food chains, Food webs and Ecological pyramids 3. 6. 1 The food chains 3. 6. 2 The food webs 3. 6. 3 The ecological pyramids 3. Introduction, Types, Characteristic features, Structure and functions 3. 7. 1 Forest ecosystem 3. 7. 2 Grassland ecosystem 3. 7. 3 Desert ecosystem 3. 7. 4 Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries, oceans) 54 55 55 56 56 57 58 58 59 60 60 61 62 62 62 62 63 63 63 65 70 74 75 UNIT 4: BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION 4. 1 INTRODUCTION – DEFINITION: GENETIC, SPECIES, ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY 4. 1. 1 Genetic diversity 4. 1. 2 Species diversity 4. 1. 3 Ecosystem diversity 4. 2 BIOGEOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA viii 82 82 82 83 84 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages. p65 8 /9/2004, 5:06 PM 4. 3 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY: CONSUMPTIVE, PRODUCTIVE USE, SOCIAL, ETHICAL, AESTHETIC AND OPTION VALUES 4. 3. 1Consumptive value 4. 3. 2 Productive value 4. 3. 3 Social value 4. 3. 4 Ethical value 4. 3. 5 Aesthetic value 4. 3. 6 Option value 4. 4 BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS 4. 5 INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION 4. 6 HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY 4. 7 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY: HABITAT LOSS, POACHING OF WILDLIFE, MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS 4. 8 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA 4. 8. 1 Common Plant species 4. 8. 2 Common Animal species 4. 9 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: IN-SITU AND EX-SITU 4. . 1 In- situ conservation 4. 9. 2 Ex-situ conservation 84 85 86 86 88 88 88 88 89 90 91 94 94 99 104 104 108 UNIT 5: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 5. 1 DEFINITION 5. 2 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF: 5. 2. 1 Air Pollution 5. 2. 2 Water Pollution 5. 2. 3 Soil Pollution 5. 2. 4 Marine Pollution 5. 2. 5 Noise Pollution 5. 2. 6 Thermal Pollution 5. 2. 7 Nuclear hazards 5. 3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 5. 4 ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS IN POLLUTION PREVENTION Natural Resources 112 113 113 123 131 135 140 142 143 145 150 ix Preliminary Pages. p65 9 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM . 5 POLLUTION CASE STUDIES 5. 6 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: FLOODS, EARTHQUAKES, CYCLONES, LANDSLIDES 153 156 UNIT 6: SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT 6. 1 FROM UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 6. 2 URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY 6. 3 WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT 6. 3. 1 Water conservation 6. 3. 2 Rain water harvesting 6. 3. 3 Watershed man agement 6. 4 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE; ITS PROBLEMS AND CONCERNS. CASE STUDIES 6. 5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS 6. 5. 1 Resource consumption patterns and the need for their equitable utilisation 6. . 2 Equity – Disparity in the Northern and Southern countries 6. 5. 3 Urban – rural equity issues 6. 5. 4 The need for Gender Equity 6. 5. 5 Preserving resources for future generations 6. 5. 6 The rights of animals 6. 5. 7 The ethical basis of environment education and awareness 6. 5. 8 The conservation ethic and traditional value systems of India 6. 6 CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING, ACID RAIN, OZONE LAYER DEPLETION, NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND NUCLEAR HOLOCAUST. CASE STUDIES 6. 6. 1 Climate change 6. 6. 2 Global warming 6. 6. 3 Acid rain 6. 6. 4 Ozone layer depletion 6. 6. 5 Nuclear Accidents and Nuclear Holocaust 6. WASTELAND RECLAMATION 6. 8 CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS 6. 9 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT 6. 10 AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT 6. 11 WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT x 165 167 168 168 170 171 172 173 173 175 175 175 176 177 178 181 182 182 183 184 185 186 187 189 193 194 196 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages. p65 10 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM 6. 12 WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT 6. 13 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT 6. 14 ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION 6. 14. 1Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) 6. 14. 2 Citizens actions and action groups 6. 5 PUBLIC AWARENESS 6. 15. 1 Using an Environmental Calendar of Activities 6. 15. 2 What can I do? 197 199 201 201 202 204 204 205 UNIT 7: HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT 7. 1 POPULATION GROWTH, VARIATION AMONG NATIONS 7. 1. 1 Global population growth 7. 2 POPULATION EXPLOSION – FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAM 7. 2. 1 Methods of sterilization 7. 1. 2 Urbanization 7. 3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN HEALTH 7. 3. 1 Environmental health 7. 3. 2 Climate and health 7. 3. 3 Infectious diseases 7. 3. 4 Water-rela ted diseases 7. 3. 5 Risks due to chemicals in food 7. 3. 6 Cancer and environment 7. 4 HUMAN RIGHTS 7. 4. 1 Equity 7. 4. Nutrition, health and human rights 7. 4. 3 Intellectual Property Rights and Community Biodiversity Registers 7. 5 VALUE EDUCATION 7. 5. 1 Environmental Values 7. 5. 2 Valuing Nature 7. 5. 3 Valuing cultures 7. 5. 4 Social justice 7. 5. 5 Human heritage 7. 5. 6 Equitable use of Resources 7. 5. 7 Common Property Resources 7. 5. 8 Ecological degradation 7. 6 HIV/AIDS 214 214 215 217 217 220 221 223 224 227 231 232 233 233 234 235 236 237 240 241 241 242 242 242 242 243 Natural Resources xi Preliminary Pages. p65 11 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM 7. 7 WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE 244 7. 8 ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH 247UNIT 8: FIELD WORK 8. 1 VISIT TO A LOCAL AREA TO DOCUMENT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS, RIVER/FOREST/GRASSLANDS/HILL/MOUNTAIN 8. 2 VISIT TO A LOCAL POLLUTED SITE 8. 3 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS, BIRDS 8. 4 STUDY OF SIMPLE ECOSYSTEMS 250 2 62 268 270 xii Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages. p65 12 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM Preface Perhaps no other country has moved so rapidly from a position of complacency in creating environmental awareness into infusing these newer pro environmental concepts into formal curricular processes as has happened in India over the last few years.This has undoubtedly been accelerated by the judgement of the Honorable Supreme Court of India that Environmental Education must form a compulsory core issue at every stage in our education processes. For one who has fought to implement a variety of environment education programs for schools and colleges and for the public at large, this is indeed a welcome change. The author is currently constantly asked to provide inputs to ‘environmentalise’ textbooks and provide inputs at NCERT, SCERTs and at the UGC level to further the cause of formal environment education.This textbook has been rapidly produced as an outcom e of a UGC Committee that included the author and was set up to develop a common core module syllabus for environmental studies at the undergraduate level, to be used by every University in the country. This rush job invites comments from just about everyone who wishes to contribute towards its improvement in the coming years. Environment Education can never remain static. It must change with the changing times which inevitably changes our environment. Each of us creates waves around us in our environment that spread outwards like the ripples generated by dropping a stone in a quiet pond.Every one of us is constantly doing something to our environment and it is frequently a result of an act that we can hardly ever reverse. Just as once the stone has hit the water one cannot stop the ripple effect from disturbing the pond. This textbook is written to bring about an awareness of a variety of environmental concerns. It attempts to create a pro-environmental attitude and a behavioral pa ttern in society that is based on creating sustainable lifestyles. But a textbook can hardly be expected to achieve a total behavioral change in society. Conservation is best brought about through creating a love for nature.If every college student is exposed to the wonders of the Indian wilderness, a new ethic towards conservation will emerge. Erach Bharucha, Pune, 2004. Natural Resources xiii Preliminary Pages. p65 13 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM xiv Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages. p65 14 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM Foreword Natural Resources xv Preliminary Pages. p65 15 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM Acknowledgements I would like at the very outset to thank the residual wilderness of our country that has, since my childhood, excited in my consciousness a desire to protect nature.For me the wilderness is a throbbing, living place – the home of the goddess of nature, which is none other than Mother Earth. One can only bow to her and apologize for what humankind has done dur ing a short span of time. This textbook came about from my having been included in a Committee selected by the UGC to develop a practical and ‘do-able’ syllabus as a Core Module for Environmental Studies for all undergraduate courses. The Committee met several times and had enthusiastic rounds of discussion as to what should be included and what was unsuitable for a unique course of this nature.While hoping only to sensitize young people to our environment, it has also to be as comprehensive as feasible. I wish to thank Prof. C Manoharachary, Prof. S Thayumanavan, Prof. DC Goswami, Shri R Mehta and Dr. NK Jain, who were the esteemed members of this Committee. All the inputs the Committee made during these deliberations have found a place in the current textbook. I thus take pleasure in thanking the Committee Members for their wholehearted participatory role in evolving the curriculum, which I have tried to translate into a textbook to uphold the spirit in which the curr iculum was framed.I have no words to thank the Chairman of the UGC, Dr. Arun Nighvekar, who has whole heartedly supported the Committee and gave freely of his valuable time to deliberate the nature of the course. He has always been as inspiration for me. Dr. (Mrs. ) HK Chauhan began co-ordinating the work of the Committee during the early part of its tenure. This was further carried out due to the enthusiasm and constant support of Dr. NK Jain, Joint Secretary of the UGC. I cannot thank them enough for their cooperation and many kind gestures. All my faculty at the BVIEER have helped in producing this output.Shamita Kumar wrote the chapter on pollution, which she has painstakingly developed to suit the needs of undergraduate students from different faculties. Her expertise as a highly innovative teacher in environment has given her the background that is necessary to draft a suitable Unit for this book. Shambhavi Joshi helped me to frame the final chapter on fieldwork. Prasanna Kolt e and Jaya Rai did all the work to develop a CD ROM based on the text to make a more presentable version of the book. Prasanna also dug up several case studies included in the book.I must thank our artists Sushma Durve and Anagha Deshpande who have painstakingly made a large number of drawings. Without them the textbook would have been yet another drab textbook. One person who has done an excellent job of editing the English, rearranging bits of the book and removing redundant material is Chinmaya Dunster, a musician by profession, an editor by calling and an environmentalist at heart. He has spent many painful hours going over the text with a fine tooth English comb. I cannot thank him enough for his enormous contribution towards the completion of this book.Finally, for the one person who has put all her heart and soul into this book, working long hours, and cheerfully making the constant changes I demanded. I have no words to thank Ms. Behafrid Patel. She has been the patient, all round support system in this complex task. Without her it could not have been produced in this brief span of time. xvi Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Preliminary Pages. p65 16 4/9/2004, 5:06 PM UNIT 1: The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies 1. 1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE 1. 1. 1 1. . 2 1. 1. 3 Definition Scope Importance 3 3 3 5 8 9 12 1. 2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS 1. 2. 1 1. 2. 2 Institutions in Environment People in Environment This course on the environment is unlike any other. It is not only a collection of facts or information about the environment. It is about the way we all should live. It is expected to give you information about the environment that will lead to a concern for your own environment. When you develop this concern, you will begin to act at your own level to protect the environment we all live in.This is the objective of the course and the syllabus is a framework on which we must all realign our lives. The Multidisciplina ry Nature of Environmental Studies 1 Chapter1. p65 1 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM This textbook deals with major environmental concerns that have been identified as important areas where background information is essential for a better understanding of our environment. It stresses on a balanced view of issues that affect our daily lives. These issues are related to the conflict between existing ‘development’ strategies and the need for ‘environmental conservation’.Unlike most other textbooks, it not only makes the reader better informed on these concerns, but is expected to lead him or her towards positive action to improve the environment. There are three reasons for studying the state of the environment. Firstly is the need for information that clarifies modern environmental concepts such as the need to conserve biodiversity, the need to lead more sustainable lifestyles and the need to use resources more equitably. Secondly, there is a need to change the way in whic h we view our own environment by a practical approach based on observation and self learning.Thirdly there is the need to create a concern for our environment that will trigger pro-environmental action, including activities we can do in our daily life to protect it. 2 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter1. p65 2 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM 1. 1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE 1. 1. 1 Definition Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and human impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science as its eeks practical answers to making human civilization sustainable on the earth’s finite resources. Its components include biology, geology, chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology, health, anthropology, economics, statistics, computers and philosophy. 1. 1. 2 Scope As we look around at the area in which we live, we see that our surroundin gs were originally a natural landscape such as a forest, a river, a mountain, a desert, or a combination of these elements. Most of us live in landscapes that have been heavily modified by human beings, in villages, towns or cities.But even those of us who live in cities get our food supply from surrounding villages and these in turn are dependent on natural landscapes such as forests, grasslands, rivers, seashores, for resources such as water for agriculture, fuel wood, fodder, and fish. Thus our daily lives are linked with our surroundings and inevitably affects them. We use water to drink and for other day-to-day activities. We breathe air, we use resources from which food is made and we depend on the community of living plants and animals which form a web of life, of which we are also a part.Everything around us forms our environment and our lives depend on keeping its vital systems as intact as possible. Our dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live witho ut protecting the earth’s environmental resources. Thus most traditions refer to our environment as ‘Mother Nature’ and most traditional societies have learned that respecting nature is vital for their livelihoods. This has led to many cultural practices that helped traditional societies protect and preserve their natural resources. Respect for nature and all living creatures is not new to India. All our traditions are based on these values.Emperor Ashoka’s edict proclaimed that all forms of life are important for our well being in Fourth Century BC. Over the past 200 years however, modern societies began to believe that easy answers to the question of producing more resources could be provided by means of technological innovations. For example, though growing more food by using fertilizers and pesticides, developing better strains of domestic animals and crops, irrigating farmland through mega dams and developing industry, led to rapid economic growth, th e ill effects of this type of development, led to environmental degradation. The industrial evelopment and intensive agriculture that provides the goods for our increasingly consumer oriented society uses up large amounts of natural resources such as water, minerals, petroleum products, wood, etc. Nonrenewable resources, such as minerals and oil are those which will be exhausted in the future if we continue to extract these without a thought for subsequent generations. Renew3 The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies Chapter1. p65 3 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM able resources, such as timber and water, are those which can be used but can be regenerated by natural processes such as regrowth or rainfall.But these too will be depleted if we continue to use them faster than nature can replace them. For example, if the removal of timber and firewood from a forest is faster than the regrowth and regeneration of trees, it cannot replenish the supply. And loss of forest cover not only depl etes the forest of its resources, such as timber and other non-wood products, but affect our water resources because an intact natural forest acts like a sponge which holds water and releases it slowly. Deforestation leads to floods in the monsoon and dry rivers once the rains are over.Such multiple effects on the environment resulting from routine human activities must be appreciated by each one of us, if it is to provide us with the resources we need in the long-term. Our natural resources can be compared with money in a bank. If we use it rapidly, the capital will be reduced to zero. On the other hand, if we use only the interest, it can sustain us over the longer term. This is called sustainable utilisation or development. ronment and change the way in which we use every resource.Unsustainable utilization can result from overuse of resources, because of population increase, and because many of us are using more resources than we really need. Most of us indulge in wasteful behavi our patterns without ever thinking about their environmental impacts. Thus, for all our actions to be environmentally positive we need to look from a new perspective at how we use resources. For every resource we use we must ask ourselves the following questions: †¢ What is the rarity of the resource and where does it originate? Who uses it most intensively and how? How is it being overused or misused?Who is responsible for its improper use – the resource collector, the middleman, the end user? How can we help to conserve it and prevent its unsustainable use? †¢ †¢ Activity 1: Take any article that you use in daily life – a bucket full of water, or an item of food, a table, or a book. Trace its components journey backwards from your home to their origins as natural resources in our environment. How many of these components are renewable resources and how many non-renewable? Understanding and making ourselves more aware of our environmental assets and pro blems is not enough.We, each one of us, must become increasingly concerned about our envi- †¢ †¢ Activity 2: Try to answer the questions above for one of the components in the article you chose in Activity 1. Then answer the following questions: 4 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter1. p65 4 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM †¢ Are you using unsustainably? that resource †¢ In what ways could you reduce, reuse and recycle that resource? Is there an unequal distribution of this resource so that you are more fortunate than many others who have less access to it? †¢ ach of us uses also increases, the earth’s resource base must inevitably shrink. The earth cannot be expected to sustain this expanding level of utilization of resources. Added to this is misuse of resources. We waste or pollute large amounts of nature’s clean water; we create more and more material like plastic that we discard after a single use; and we waste colossal amounts of foo d, which is discarded as garbage. Manufacturing processes create solid waste byproducts that are discarded, as well as chemicals that flow out as liquid waste and pollute water, and gases that pollute the air.Increasing amounts of waste cannot be managed by natural processes. These accumulate in our environment, leading to a variety of diseases and other adverse environmental impacts now seriously affecting all our lives. Air pollution leads to respiratory diseases, water pollution to gastro-intestinal diseases, and many pollutants are known to cause cancer. Once we begin to ask these questions of ourselves, we will begin to live lifestyles that are more sustainable and will support our environment. 1. 1. 3 Importance Environment is not a single subject.It is an integration of several subjects that include both Science and Social Studies. To understand all the different aspects of our environment we need to understand biology, chemistry, physics, geography, resource management, econ omics and population issues. Thus the scope of environmental studies is extremely wide and covers some aspects of nearly every major discipline. We live in a world in which natural resources are limited. Water, air, soil, minerals, oil, the products we get from forests, grasslands, oceans and from agriculture and livestock, are all a part of our life support systems.Without them, life itself would be impossible. As we keep increasing in numbers and the quantity of resources Improving this situation will only happen if each of us begins to take actions in our daily lives that will help preserve our environmental resources. We cannot expect Governments alone to manage the safeguarding of the environment, nor can we expect other people to prevent environmental damage. We need to do it ourselves. It is a responsibility that each of us must take on as ones own. The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies 5 Chapter1. 65 5 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM Activity 3: †¢ Think of all the th ings that you do in a day. List these activities and identify the main resources used during these activities. What can you do to prevent waste, reuse articles that you normally throw away, what recycled materials can you use? Think of the various energy sources you use everyday. How could you reduce their use? What happens to it when you throw it away/ where does it go? Example – Fossil fuels: How much do you use? Can you reduce your consumption? What effect does it have on the air we breathe? Activity 4: Exercises in self learning about the environment Attempt to assess the level of damage to the environment due to your actions that have occurred during your last working day, the last week, the last year. Then estimate the damage you are likely to do in your lifetime if you continue in your present ways. Use the following examples for the above exercise: When we leave a motorbike or car running during a traffic stop, we do not usually remember that the fuel we are wasting i s a part of a nonrenewable resource that the earth cannot reform.Once all the fossil fuels are burnt off, it will mean the end of oil as a source of energy. Only if each of us contributes our part in conserving fossil based energy can we make it last longer on earth. Example – Water: How much do you really need to use, as against how much you waste when you: (a) Brush your teeth? (b) Have a bath? (c) Wash clothes? (d) Wash the scooter or car? Where did the water come from? What is its actual source? How has it reached you? Where will the waste water go? Example – Plastic: Plastic bags, plastic ball pensThink about all the articles you use daily that are made from plastic. Plastic plays an important part in our modern lives. Make a list of the plastic articles you usually use. How can you reduce the amount of plastic you use? What effects does plastic have on our environment? Where did the plastic come from/ how is it made? Do you feel you should change the way you use water? How can you change this so that it is more sustainable? Example – Food: Where has it come from? How is it grown? What chemicals are used in its production?How does it reach you? Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses 6 Chapter1. p65 6 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM How is it cooked? How much is wasted? How is the waste disposed off? struction of a forest, wetland or other natural area and do not protest about it, future generations are being denied the use of these valuable resources and will blame us for these rash and negligent actions towards the environment. Thus the urgent need to protect all living species is a concept that we need to understand and act upon.While individually, we perhaps cannot directly prevent the extinction of a species, creating a strong public opinion to protect the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in which wild species live is an importance aspect of sustainable living. There is a close link between agriculture and the forest, which illu strates its productive value. For crops to be successful, the flowers of fruit trees and vegetables must be pollinated by insects, bats and birds. Their life cycles however frequently require intact forests. Example – Paper: What is it made from? Where does it come from and what happens during manufacture?How much do you use and how much do you waste? How can you prevent it from being wasted? Example – Electrical Energy: How much do you use everyday? Where does it come from? How do you waste it? How can you conserve energy? Productive value of nature: As scientists make new advances in fields such as biotechnology we begin to understand that the world’s species contain an incredible and uncountable number of complex chemicals. These are the raw materials that are used for developing new medicines and industrial products and are a storehouse from which to develop thousands of new products in the future.The flowering plants and insects that form the most speciesri ch groups of living organisms are thus vital for the future development of man. If we degrade their habitat these species will become extinct. If one sees being sold or used, a product that comes from an illegally killed wild species, if we do not inform the authorities, we become party to its extinction. Once they are lost, man cannot bring them back. When we permit the de- Aesthetic/Recreational value of nature: The aesthetic and recreational values that nature possesses enlivens our existence on earth.This is created by developing National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in relatively undisturbed areas. A true wilderness experience has not only recreational value but is an incredible learning experience. It brings about an understanding of the oneness of nature and the fact that we are entirely dependent upon the intricate functioning of ecosystems. The beauty of nature encompasses every aspect of the living and non-living part of our earth. One can appreciate the magnificence of a mountain, the power of the sea, the beauty of a forest, and the vast expanse of the desert.It is these natural vistas and their incredible diversity of plant and animal life that has led to the development of several philosophies of life. It has also inspired artists to develop visual arts and writers and poets to create their works that vitalize our lives. The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies 7 Chapter1. p65 7 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM A wilderness experience has exceptional recreational value. This has been described as nature tourism, or wildlife tourism, and is also one aspect of adventure tourism.These recreational facilities not only provide a pleasurable experience but are intended to create a deep respect and love for nature. They are also key tools in educating people about the fragility of the environment and the need for sustainable lifestyles. In an urban setting, green spaces and gardens are vital to the pschycological and physical health of city dwellers. It provides not only an aesthetic and visual appeal but the ability to ensure that each individual is able to access a certain amount of peace and tranquility. Thus urban environmental planners must ensure that these facilities are created in growing urban complexes.Another important conservation education facility in urban settings includes the need to set up well designed and properly managed zoological parks and aquariums. These have got great value in sensitizing school students to wildlife. Many young people who frequented zoos as young children grow up to love wildlife and become conservationists. In the absence of access to a Protected Area, a botanical garden or a zoo, one concept that can be developed is to create small nature awareness areas with interpretation facilities at district and taluka levels.These areas can be developed to mimic natural ecosystems even though they could be relatively small in size. Such nature trails are invaluable assets for creating conservation education and awareness. They can be developed in a small woodlot, a patch of grassland, a pond ecosystem, or be situated along an undisturbed river or coastal area. This would bring home to the visitor the importance of protecting our dwindling wilderness areas. The option values of nature: While we utilise several goods and services of ature and enjoy its benefits, we must recognize that every activity that we do in our daily lives has an adverse impact on nature’s integrity. Thus if we use up all our resources, kill off and let species of plants and animals become extinct on earth, pollute our air and water, degrade land, and create enormous quantities of waste, we as a generation will leave nothing for future generations. Our present generation has developed its economies and lifestyles on unsustainable patterns of life. however, nature provides us with various options on how we utilize its goods and services.This is its option value. We can use up goods and services gree dily and destroy its integrity and long term values, or we can use its resources sustainably and reduce our impacts on the environment. The option value allows us to use its resources sustainably and preserve its goods and services for the future. 1. 2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS As the earth’s natural resources are dwindling and our environment is being increasingly degraded by human activities, it is evident that something needs to be done. We often feel that managing all this is something that the Government should do.But if we go on endangering our environment, there is no 8 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter1. p65 8 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM way in which the Government can perform all these clean-up functions. It is the prevention of environment degradation in which we must all take part that must become a part of all our lives. Just as for any disease, prevention is better than cure. To prevent ill-effects on our environment by our actions, is economically mo re viable than cleaning up the environment once it is damaged. Individually we can play a major role in environment anagement. We can reduce wasting natural resources and we can act as watchdogs that inform the Government about sources that lead to pollution and degradation of our environment. This can only be made possible through mass public awareness. Mass media such as newspapers, radio, television, strongly influence public opinion. However, someone has to bring this about. If each of us feels strongly about the environment, the press and media will add to our efforts. Politicians in a democracy always respond positively to a strong publicly supported movement.Thus if you join an NGO that supports conservation, politicians will make green policies. We are living on spaceship earth with a limited supply of resources. Each of us is responsible for spreading this message to as many people as possible. Suggested further activities for concerned students: †¢ Join a group to stu dy nature, such as WWFI or BNHS, or another environmental group. Begin reading newspaper articles and periodicals such as ‘Down to Earth’, WWF-I newsletter, BNHS Hornbill, Sanctuary magazine, etc. that will tell you more about our environment. There are also several environmental websites.Lobby for conserving resources by taking up the cause of environmental issues during discussions with friends and relatives. Practice and promote issues such as saving paper, saving water, reducing use of plastics, practicing the 3Rs principle of reduce, reuse, recycle, and proper waste disposal. †¢ Join local movements that support activities such as saving trees in your area, go on nature treks, recycle waste, buy environmentally friendly products. Practice and promote good civic sense such as no spitting or tobacco chewing, no throwing garbage on the road, no smoking in public places, no urinating or defecating in public places.Take part in events organised on World Environment Day, Wildlife Week, etc. Visit a National Park or Sanctuary, or spend time in whatever nature you have near your home. †¢ †¢ †¢ 1. 2. 1 Institutions in Environment There have been several Government and Nongovernment organizations that have led to environmental protection in our country. They have led to a growing interest in environmental protection and conservation of nature and natural resources. The traditional conservation practices that were part of ancient India’s culture have however gradually disappeared.Public awareness is thus a critical need to further environmental protection. Among the large number of institutions that deal with environmental protection and conservation, a few well-known organizations include government organisations such as the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs such as BNHS, WWF-I, etc. †¢ †¢ Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai: the BNHS began as a small society of six members in 1883. It grew from a group of 9 The Multi disciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies Chapter1. p65 9 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM hikaris and people from all walks of life into a major research organisation that substantially influenced conservation policy in the country. The influence on wildlife policy building, research, popular publications and peoples action have been unique features of the multifaceted society. Undoubtedly its major contribution has been in the field of wildlife research. It is India’s oldest conservation research based NGO and one that has acted at the forefront of the battle for species and ecosystems. The BNHS publishes a popular magazine called Hornbill and also n internationally well-known Journal on Natural History. Its other publications include the Salim Ali Handbook on birds, JC Daniel’s book of Indian Reptiles, SH Prater’s book of Indian Mammals and PV Bole’s book of Indian Trees. One of its greatest scientists was Dr. Salim Ali whose ornithological work on the birds of th e Indian subcontinent is world famous. The BNHS has over the years helped Government to frame wildlife related laws and has taken up battles such as the ‘Save the Silent Valley’ campaign. ence and Environment fortnightly.It is involved in the publication of material in the form of books, posters, video films and also conducts workshops and seminars on biodiversity related issues. CPR Environmental Education Centre, Madras: The CPR EEC was set up in 1988. It conducts a variety of programs to spread environmental awareness and creates an interest in conservation among the general public. It focussed attention on NGOs, teachers, women, youth and children to generally promote conservation of nature and natural resources. Its programs include components on wildlife and biodiversity issues.CPR EEC also produces a large number of publications. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I), New Delhi: The WWF-I was initiated in 1969 in Mumbai after which the headquarters were shifted to D elhi with several branch offices all over India. The early years focused attention on wildlife education and awareness. It runs several programs including the Nature Clubs of India program for school children and works as a think tank and lobby force for environment and development issues. Centre for Environment Education (CEE), Ahmedabad: The Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad was initiated in 1989.It has a wide range of programs on the environment and produces a variety of educational material. CEE’s Training in Environment Education {TEE} program has trained many environment educators. Center for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi: Activities of this Center include organising campaigns, holding workshops and conferences, and producing environment related publications. It published a major document on the ‘State of India’s Environment’, the first of its kind to be produced as a Citizen’s Report on the Environment. The CSE also publi shes a popular magazine, ‘Down to Earth’, which is a Sci10Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research (BVIEER), Pune: This is part of the Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University. The Institute has a PhD, a Masters and Bachelors program in Environmental Sciences. It also offers an innovative Diploma in Environment Education for in-service teachers. It implements a large outreach programme that has covered over 135 schools in which it trains teachers and conducts fortnightly Environment Education Programs. Biodiversity Conservation is a major focus of its research initiatives.It develops low cost Interpretation Centres for Natural and Architectural sites that are highly locale specific as well as a large amount of innovative environment educational Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter1. p65 10 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM material for a variety of target groups. Its unique feature is that it conducts environment education from primary school le vel to the postgraduate level. The BVIEER has produced several EE aids. It has developed a teacher’s handbook linked to school curriculum, a textbook for UGC for its undergraduate course on environment.Its Director has developed a CD ROM on India’s biodiversity published by Mapin Publishers, Ahmedabad. Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON), Coimbatore: This institution was Dr. Salim Ali’s dream that became a reality only after his demise. He wished to support a group of committed conservation scientists on a permanent basis. Initially conceived as being a wing of the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) it later evolved as an independent organisation based at Coimbatore in 1990. It has instituted a variety of field programs that have added to the country’s information on our threatened biodiversity.Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora: The Organisation is a Nodal Agency which supports NGOs in need of funds for their environment rel ated activities. Its major program is organising and training school teachers to use its locale specific Environment Education Workbook Program. The main targets are linked with sustainable resource use at the village level through training school children. Its environment education program covers about 500 schools. Kalpavriksh, Pune: This NGO, initially Delhi based, is now working from Pune and is active in several other parts of Indi